Xenomythology

Xenomythology

Fact or fanfiction?

The Baptism of Christ, Aert de Gelder, 1710

Have you wondered if there is life out there in space? Many have, and many believe that there is. You may have even imagined that one day, we may discover another civilization in a galaxy, far, far away from our own.

But what if they already visited us? What if they visited us long, long ago, when humanity wasn't ready? Thus, advanced technology is deemed supernatural, and aliens are worshipped as gods. What if this is the true origin of mythology?

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The Paleocontact Theory

This is a real theory that some have that has been popularized in the modern day by the TV show Ancient Aliens. This speculation was brought to life in the 1960s by two well-known astrophysicists, Carl Sagan (yes, THE Carl Sagan) and Iosif Shklovsky in their book, Intelligent Life in the Universe (1966). In the book, they devote a chapter to the possibility of alien contact being made long before recorded history.

While this theory was mere speculation, it was enough to inspire an entire sub-genre of writing and thinking. The "ancient aliens" trend, along with all trends, had a pioneer. His name was Erich von Däniken, and he was crazy. Through his bestseller, Chariots of the Gods? (1968), Erich popularized the theory of paleocontact (alien contact made before recorded history).

Of course, the global scientific community was skeptical. Sagan and Shklovsky's paleocontact theory was mere speculation, but ancient mythology stories backed it up. One piece of evidence is the tale of Oannes in ancient Sumerian mythology. Oannes was a fish-like bipedal creature that resembled and behaved like a human. They, along with other similar looking creatures, spread the concept of civilization to humans. Sagan and Shklovsky believe in the possibility of the stories being true tales of alien contact due to the story's consistency and detail despite its extreme age.

““Stories like the Oannes legend, and representations especially of the earliest civilizations on Earth, deserve much more critical studies than have been performed heretofore, with the possibility of direct contact with an extraterrestrial civilization as one of many possible alternative explanations.” ”

— Intelligent Life in the Universe (1966), Shlovsky and Sagan p. 461

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Erich's Evidence

On the other hand, Erich's hypothesis is based on "out-of-place artifacts," artifacts found that "couldn't possibly be made" by humans with their primitive technology. Erich was the first to propose that megalithic sites were built by aliens or by humans who were granted the know-how by aliens. These sites include the Pyramids of Giza, the Moai of Easter Island and Stonehenge.

Photo by Joshua Michaels on Unsplash, Photo by Thomas Griggs on Unsplash, Photo by Debbie Grap on Unsplash

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Erich also believes that certain prehistoric artwork supports his points. One infamous example is the Egyptian "helicopter hieroglyphs." You may have seen them before, surrounded by obnoxious circles and arrows. Another is the Dogū figurines made in Japan, which Erich says, "resemble astronauts."

Pictured are what some theorize to be ancient descriptions of advanced technology, such as tanks, helicopters and jet planes.

Dogū Statue

Created around 1000-400 BCE in Japan

Supposedly resembles an astronaut

The most significant piece of evidence Erich has up his sleeve resides in the Bible. In the first chapter of the Book of Ezekiel, Ezekiel has a vision. Ezekiel recounts this vision being of an "immense cloud" of fire, spewing lightning and "brilliant light." In the cloud's fire came "what looked like four living creatures" that were winged and resembled humans. The creatures "sped back and forth like flashes of lightning" and "fire moved back and forth among the creatures." The creatures were also accompanied by four shiny objects, each appearing "like a wheel intersecting a wheel." The things moved as the creatures moved, following them.

While the Bible states that Ezekiel saw angels, Erich believes that Ezekiel saw spaceships. It sounds preposterous until you see an artist's depiction of what Ezekiel saw…

Yeah, I'm going to believe Erich on this one.

Pseudoscientific Nonsense

While this theory is fun to imagine, the idea of ancient aliens is not taken seriously by academics. Erich and other paleocontact-believers are often accused of pushing "pseudoscience" and "pseudoarcheology." Egyptologists debunked the "helicopter hieroglyphs" as pareidolia, deriving from large distribution of doctored images, resulting in missing vital details. As for Erich's book, another book refutes all of Erich's points; that book is The Space Gods Revealed (1976) by Richard Story.  

In his book Broca's Brain (1979), Carl Sagan acknowledges his influence of the ancient aliens theory. Sagan expresses his disapproval of "von Däniken and other uncritical writers" and reiterates his earlier conclusion that extraterrestrial visits to Earth were possible but unproven and improbable.

It turns out the truth isn't here, but it may still be out there.

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:thinking:

Trey Turner

Trey is an eighteen-year-old way over his oversized head. He is Cree from Eeyou Istchee in Northern Quebec. When he isn’t on Twitch or YouTube—he can be found in his bedroom, unconscious.

Twitter: @kr00si

Instagram: @krewsi

Very Superstitious

My Mother Always had Some Strange Superstitions…

You never passed the salt without putting it down on the table first. If you dropped the tea towel accidentally, it meant we would have a strange visitor. If you could hook something on the moon, it meant bad weather was coming. And you never pass someone on the stairs.

Was this insanity or was there truth to these bizarre attempts to avoid bad luck? And where did such superstitions come from, anyway?

Salarium Argentum…

Salt. So, we sprinkle it on French fries what’s so special about it?

Well, salt has been one of the world’s major commodities for a very long time. The Romans even paid their workers with the mineral — Salarium Argentum. It’s where we get the word salary. You wouldn’t think it would come up much, but in the bible alone there are over 30 references to salt.

Let your speech always be with grace, seasoned with salt, that you may know how you ought to answer each one.

- Colossians 4:6

In Christianity, salt represented anything from loyalty to purification. It’s understandable that such a seasoning signified some serious sentiment (that’s what we call alliteration!).

However, there was more to it than that. The belief is that an angel sat on the right shoulder of any person — guiding them in the direction of wholesomeness. On the left shoulder sat the devil — goading sweet wickedness into the ears of unsuspecting individuals (think Kronk from The Emperor’s New Groove).

When someone spilled salt — a sin due to how important and pricey it was — a smidge of it thrown over the left shoulder would blind the devil.

Seven Years Bad Luck…

Many of us have been there — we buy a new mirror and begin hanging it on the wall only for someone to poke their head around the corner (almost making you drop it in the process…) and say, “Don’t drop that! You’ll have seven years of bad luck!”.

You roll your eyes. What nonsense! If you drop the mirror, what you’ll have is hundreds of little mirrors…

To the ancient Romans, a mirror was an uncanny reflection of one’s self — a perfect imitation of the soul gazing back. In this way, it’s easy to understand that a crack or break in the mirror would represent the individual’s imminent demise.

To the Romans, illness or ill fate had an expiration date of, you guessed it, seven years! However, all was not hopeless. To break the strange seven-year curse, simply bury the broken mirror on the night of a full moon.

Son of Greek God Cephisus and the Nymph Liriope, Narcissus — honoured for his beauty — died wasting away in front of his own reflection (talk about needing a hobby). It is possible that the Roman belief of mirrors holding bad luck stemmed from this mythos.

But the universe handed Narcissus a bad reputation. As the myth goes, a seer told his mother that Narcissus would live a good long life if he never recognized himself. After rejecting Echo and Ameinias’ advances, both known for their beauty, the Gods were furious. For this, Narcissus fell in love with his own reflection and died before it — sprouting daffodils that bear his name upon his death bed. But there are some who believe this wasn’t the case at all. Instead, Narcissus mourned the loss of his twin sister — the exact mirrored image of himself — and sat gazing at his reflection to see her image once more until he died.

The Flip Side…

Let’s end on a high note — not all superstitions are based on bad luck. In ancient times, metals were precious assets to society and civilization. Metals like copper, bronze and gold were valuable gifts from the gods and therefore held for good luck.

A coin also represents two sides — good and evil. If you’re lucky enough to find a coin head side up, it means good luck (tails up, not so much…But we won’t talk about that).

So, I leave you, dear reader, with the hopes of good fortune and prosperity. Whether you believe in the old wives’ tales, as my mother does, or not, I hope luck finds you on your travels.

Thanks for reading!

Enjoyed this piece? Check out the other Mythology Abroad blogs! They may just bring back your faith in the old Gods!

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Tori Edwards

Tori is a professional writing student from Newfoundland, Canada. When not writing or drawing you might find her listening to rock and roll or summoning the stray cats from the neighborhood like a witch.

To Double-Cross Zeus for the Greater Good

Credit: josh howard/unsplash

torch with flame in the dark

Look around you, wherever you are. What do you see? Pick a few objects that you consider essential for your daily life.

What if I told you that once upon a time, not so long ago, fire was just as essential to humanity?

Fire cooked our food. Fire crafted our weapons, glass and jewellery. Fire kept us warm, lit and safe. And, as long as humans have witnessed its cleansing, purifying, transformative and destructive powers, fire has been present in our mythologies. Simply put, we wouldn’t have made it this far as a species without it, and that is why fire deserves a special place in folklore.

However, this power didn’t come freely. Something as essential, mighty and enduring could only be magical and restricted. For the Ancient Greeks, fire was an entity only worthy of the gods—meagre humans were not learned or civilized enough to wield it.

Today we’ll learn about the hero who gave humanity the gift of fire. Or, in the eyes of Zeus, the trickster thief who stole what wasn’t ever meant for humans to possess.

The Always Benevolent Zeus

credit: johannes plenio/pexels

orange lightning on cloudy landscape

Think about cruel and unusual punishment. Would a thief deserve it? According to the Ancient Greek gods, Prometheus certainly did.

Prometheus, one of the Titans, was not involved in the Titanomachy (I discussed this briefly in my first blog post), so Zeus didn’t imprison him in Tartarus. Instead, Zeus tasked Prometheus to craft the first humans from clay. As strange as this sounds, Prometheus succeeded, but he also ended up liking humans. In time, Prometheus felt more at home with mortals than among the gods (I wonder why). Then, he decided to steal Zeus’s fire for humans. Fire had been only accessible to the gods so far.

Not for much longer, however. Prometheus (a very smart titan whose name means “forethought”) provoked a fight over a golden pear in which he attached the message “for the most beautiful goddess of all.” Knowing that Greek deities are as vain as can be, do you see a problem with that message? Don’t think too long about it!

A squabble ensued, and Prometheus took advantage of the distraction to sneak into Hephaestus’s workshop, where he found the fire. He then proceeded to smuggle it out inside a hollowed pumpkin (other myths say it was a hollowed reed or fennel stalk). He brought it to Earth and gifted it to humans.

It didn’t take Zeus long to notice… Worst of all, this wasn’t the first time Prometheus had deceived him. If you think about it, for Greek deities, a single transgression is (often) one too many. Some would say Prometheus would’ve rather been imprisoned in Tartarus from the beginning knowing what awaited him.

The Actual Punishment

source: wikimedia commons, prometheus bound by thomas cole (1847)

painting of prometheus chained to mount caucasus

Zeus didn’t do the dirty work himself. After all, Prometheus didn’t quite steal from Zeus directly. Prometheus had instead stolen from Hephaestus, god of fire. Zeus made Hephaestus craft chains with which to bind Prometheus to Mount Caucasus—at the time viewed as the end of the world. Clearly, Zeus didn’t want Prometheus close to him or his property ever again.

Apparently, chaining someone to a faraway mountain isn’t enough of a punishment, so Zeus sent an eagle to eat Prometheus’s liver for all eternity. As an immortal entity, Prometheus could not die. Instead, he would keep suffering forever as the eagle ate his liver every day, only for it to regenerate every night.

Not All Hope is Lost

credit: mike labrum/unsplash

group of lit candles in the dark

You might be relieved to know that there is an eventual end to Prometheus’s suffering. Zeus offered to free him in exchange for information regarding a prophecy about his potential dethronement as king of the gods. Prometheus, true to his conviction, refused to tell Zeus.

It was ultimately Hercules, on his way to complete his Twelve Labours, who killed the eagle one day, freeing Prometheus from his daily torment. Zeus (again) wasn’t happy, but if you can’t beat them…

Zeus granted Prometheus his freedom.

Prometheus’s transgressions against Zeus made him a champion for humanity and the creator of human arts and sciences. Fire isn’t nearly as essential to us today as it was for most of humankind’s history. And, you know, we also have lighters and matches now. Nonetheless, from the lens of Ancient Greek mythology, my ability to write this post, your ability to read it and even our very existence are all thanks to Prometheus.

Here’s to a better 2021.

All hail the fire thief!

Read more:

The Myth of Prometheus - The Thief of Fire

Theft of Fire in Different Mythologies

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Raf N.

After finishing a Bachelor of Business Administration and a Graduate Diploma in Digital Marketing, Raf ventured into the exciting world of professional writing. Some of Raf’s interest include travel, photography, history, languages, and dogs.

Queer Mythological Icons

History is gayer than you think.

And mythology is even gayer than that.

Especially when it comes to shamanistic mythologies. Exploring ancient mythology will open a world of gender-bending, same-sex attraction and a level of queerness even a gay pride parade can’t rival.

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Dragons Love Old Men

Before the influence of Taoism and Confucianism, there was ancient Chinese shamanism. The mythology depicts a slew of spirits changing from one gender to the next based on the sexual preference of the mortal they were trying to seduce. The main characters involved in this hobby were animal spirits. A male deer spirit would transform into a supple female human in order to seduce a young straight man. Most animal spirits would pursue younger targets, male or female. The exception to this was the dragons who exclusively pursued dominant older male partners.

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How Same-Sex Attraction Saved the World

Japanese mythology depicts the story of Amaterasu the goddess of the sun. After a fight with her brother, Amateseru fled to the safety of a dark cave. She took the light of day with her so people were justifiably concerned. The only logical way to save humanity and draw the goddess out of her closet-like cave was to enlist the help of the goddess of dance and humour, Ame No Uzume.

Ame No Uzume went to the mouth of the cave and began to dance. As she danced, she removed her clothes. An entranced Amaterasu slowly walked towards the gyrating goddess and left the cave. While the sun watched the dancing, the townspeople shut the mouth of the cave behind her, and thus sexy dancing saved the world.

It would be interesting to know whether this was plan A or plan B. Maybe they went through a troupe of male strippers before they realized the female goddess was the right bait.

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Adam and Steve

In Inuit shamanistic mythology, the first two humans, Aakulujjuusi and Uumarnituq, were both male. I do not know why mythology is obsessed with only two humans starting the human race, but it pops up everywhere, again and again. The two men fell in love and began a sexual relationship. Disproving most sex-ed curriculums, one of the men became pregnant. While no one questioned his ability to get pregnant, the spirits were concerned about his ability to give birth.

The spirits cast a spell on the pregnant man to give him a vagina, not a uterus though because apparently, he already had one of those. And so, the man (most likely with great relief) gave birth to his baby and became the father of humanity.

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One of the Best Things You’ll Read Today

Everything else you’ve read so far has been nothing more than an appetizer for the main course of queer mythology that is Louisiana Voodoo.

Imagine a whole group of male spirits whose only job is to smoke cigars, drink rum and dress in women’s clothing. It’s not their only job, but it is a big part of the mythology. Some notable characters include Ghede Nibo, who was at times described as a drag queen and other times as a trans lesbian. He was the protector of people who die young, and he looked fabulous while doing it.

Baron Lundy and Baron Limba are the gay uncles we all wish we had. After falling in love, they decided to open a school dedicated to homoerotic wrestling. The mythology states that engaging in this kind of wrestling was good for the magical abilities.

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That Time When Christianity Ruined Everything

I considered, for a moment, not including this part. I almost attempted to keep things fun and celebratory. How fitting, then, that I become a wet blanket by discussing the wettest of blankets: Christianity.

Pre-Christian shamanic mythologies celebrated multiple gender identities/expressions and had deities loving everyone, however they chose. Then, like the angry uncle no one invited to dinner, Christianity showed up and ruined everyone’s fun.

As Christianity spread throughout the world, so did rigid ideas of morality, thanks to the imperialistic lust of England and other European colonialists. Gone were the days that the gods were all androgynous, polyamorous and interesting.

Early Christianity started out by condemning anything but procreative sex. The general attitude towards all sexual acts at the time was that everything was gross and bad, but we still need babies.

The Catholic Church made sure to have strict anti-sodomy laws in place throughout Europe during the Medieval period. Europe used to include England, so when the English set sail for foreign lands, they brought their terrible European laws with them.

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By no means do I think religion is inherently bad, but I do believe that the rise of Christianity and its doctrine of religious conversion negatively affected the worldview on homosexuality and gender identity. And when it comes to mythology, I would rather live in a world where we believe that our gods, as well as ourselves, are free to express gender and love however we so choose.

Make mythology gay again.

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Molly Desson

Molly Desson is a Professional Writing student at Algonquin College. When she’s not busy with coursework, she’s either talking to or about her dog. Some of her non-dog interests include the ancient world, crafts, and being outside.

Here’s the Thing…About Earth Goddesses

Photo By ochir-erdene oyunmedeg on Unsplash

Have you ever stood outside with your bare feet in the grass, feeling the earth beneath your feet? If not, I highly recommend doing so because it is very therapeutic. But it is also a chance to connect to the natural world. With your toes digging into the soil and the sun warming your face as the wind blows gently through your hair, you can feel one with the earth.

In my final post, I will be sharing the stories of Gaea and Jord. These two have a lot in common. They are both goddesses of nature who are also portrayed as mothers.

Let’s take a look.

Gaea (Greek Mythology)

Gaea, terra-cotta statuette from Tanagra, Greece; in the Musée Borély, Marseille.

Giraudon/Art Resource, New York

Who is Gaea?

In ancient Greece, Gaea is the personification of the Earth in goddess form. It is believed that she was born out if Chaos, who, according to the Ancient Greeks, is the origin of everything. It is the space at the beginning of time, and that is where Gaea comes from. She was the first deity to be born from Chaos after it came into being. After her came Tartarus (the Underworld) and then Eros (Love).

Thus, these four were the first generation of deities.

Gaea bore many children, her first three were: Uranus (the Sky), Ourea (the Mountains), and Pontus (the Sea). She is also the mother of all, including the Titans, the Gigantes (giants), the Erinyes (furies), and the Cyclops. This makes her, for all intents and purposes, a Mother Goddess. From her came all the other aspects of nature who became deities.

She mated with Uranus first and gave birth to eighteen children. Twelve of these children became known as the Titans, three of them were the Cyclopes, and the last three were called the Hecatoncheires. In case you were wondering, the Hecatoncheires are giant creatures whose name means “hundred-handed ones”.

I can’t imagine beings with one hundred hands. They sound like a handful (pun intended). 

She then mated with Pontus and bore five more children.

Each of Gaea’s children went on to have children of their own. These children are the more commonly known deities of the Greek pantheon. So, if you think about it, Gaea truly is the Mother Goddess of all Ancient Greek deities.

I think that is beautiful.

Jord (Norse Mythology)

Mother Earth Photo by Alexander Henning Drachmann

Jord is a lesser-known deity. Admittedly it was challenging to find information on her. However, I was determined to learn what I could. The reason I wanted to talk about her is that I have an interest in Norse mythology and was amazed to discover that they—like the Ancient Greeks—have an all-encompassing Earth goddess.

Here is what I found.

Jord is the personification of the Earth, much like Gaea is. She is a goddess and mother to Thor, the God of Thunder (see my post on him here), and one of Odin’s consorts. It is said that she was Odin’s first consort before he married an Aesir goddess. For those who are unfamiliar, the Aesir are the gods who make up the primary pantheon in Norse mythology. Gods like Odin, Frigg, Hother, Thor, Baldr and Týr are a part of the Aesir.

Her name, Jord, comes from Old Norse and means “earth” or “land”. Jord is seldom mentioned in Norse mythology. She can be found in the Prose Edda in a section that reads:

 “The earth was [Odin’s] daughter and his wife. Out of her he begot the first of his sons, that is Asa-Thor”.

Though while she is mentioned, it is not by name.

Despite such little representation, it is believed by some that she is the goddess of the uncivilized, the uncultivated, the wild Earth. Much like Gaea, she is thought to embody the Earth and all life that comes forth from it.

In truth, that is all the information that I have on her. However, you can see how they share certain similarities. For one, they are both considered to be personifications of the Earth. They also embody most, if not all, aspects of nature that comes from this Earth. In a way, even though less is known about Jord, there is something

This is Not the End

Maybe the next time you stand with your feet in the grass, you will feel the embrace of Gaea or Jord. I hope I have inspired you to look at the world a little differently after today. It has been an absolute pleasure to share these ancient myths and stories with you all.

Until we meet again.

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Sarah Clarke

Sarah is a 20-something aspiring author who has a passion for writing. She is also an avid fan of movies, TV shows, video games, and of course, books. Her favourite genres include fantasy, sci-fi, historical fiction, and various others. Why have one favourite when you can have many?

Forest Fables - The Cryptid Files

Photo by Vladimir Agafonkin on Unsplash

Did you know that forests cover about 30% of Earth, and some forests are estimated to be over a million years old?

Who knows what secrets they’ve hidden or are still hiding to this day?

Throughout history, many groups have theorized about fantastical creatures that lurk in the trees. Today we’ll be looking at the most terrifying ones I could find (and stomach). These horrors include cannibalistic demons, tantalizing spirits and a familiar face.

Let us delve into the wilderness and see who taps our shoulder first.

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Wendigo

When I hear the word “Wendigo,” chills run down my spine. Tales of Wendigo derive from Algonquian-speaking First Nations, including the Algonquin, Abenaki, Siksika, Mi’kmaq, Ojibwe and Innu. The legend of Wendigo has existed for centuries, long before European arrival. The first European-written account of Wendigo was in the 16th century, written by Paul Le Jeune, a Jesuit missionary.

Wendigo is a cannibalistic monster that preys on weak and socially disconnected humans. According to Algonquian oral traditions, when a human’s spirit is overrun with greed or broken by extreme conditions, that human is prone to becoming a Wendigo. Legends vary; humans either transform by themselves or get possessed by a spirit.

Like its other details, Wendigo’s appearance and abilities vary. It is sometimes described as incredibly thin, to the point where the bones protrude out the host’s clammy skin. Scarier stories state that Wendigo is a giant that becomes larger the more it eats.

Wendigo is said to develop antlers or horns on its head, and its eyes are sunken or glowing. Other traits of Wendigo are incredibly sharp teeth, horrid breath and body odour. The abilities of Wendigo include superhuman strength and stamina, and animalistic senses.

Luckily for us, Wendigo is not invincible. It is said to be vulnerable to fire and conventional weaponry. Other claims state that the icy heart of a Wendigo must be cut out and incinerated to kill it. However, other legends claim that the only person who can kill a Wendigo is a First Nations shaman with a specific spell and ceremony.

Make sure to pack enough food for your next camping trip, lest you risk becoming a Wendigo.

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Will-o’-The-Wisp

Have you ever been walking at night and sworn to yourself that you saw a bright light in the corner of your eye? You may have caught a glimpse of our next creature: Will-o’-the-wisp.

Originating from numerous European folk beliefs, Will-o’-the-wisp is a ghostly spirit or fairy that resembles a light. It is often seen at night, especially within swamps. It is an evil spirit that leads naïve travellers to supposed treasure but actually into danger. Its name comes from an 18th-century fairy tale about a sprite (ghost/fairy) named Will “who bears the wispy fire to trail the swains among the mire.” It is more commonly known as ignis fatuus, which means “foolish fire” in Latin.

Will-o’-the-wisp isn’t just a European folktale, but an international one. Tales come from Canada, the United States, Norway, Thailand, Australia and many more locations worldwide. Famous examples include the St. Louis Light in Saskatchewan, the annual Naga fireballs on the Mekong River in Thailand, and the Min Min lights in outback Australia.

As per usual, modern science ruins the fun. Scientists discovered the causation behind the Will-o’-the-wisp and similar tales. It is caused by the oxidation of phosphine, diphosphane, and methane, all compounds common in swamps. Produced by organic decay, these compounds, during oxidation, can create very quick flares of flame. No fairies here!

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Bigfoot

You can’t talk about cryptids without mentioning the big man himself, Bigfoot.

Bigfoot, also known as Sasquatch, is a large, ape-like creature that is said to live in the forests on the West Coast of North America. Origins of Bigfoot come from Native American tribes in the region, such as the Lummi, the Nlaka’pamux and the Wyandot people, to name a few. Better known origins come from footprints taken in 1811 by David Thompson and alleged photographs and video recordings by Roger Patterson in 1967.

Bigfoot is commonly described as muscular, covered in fur, stinky and the owner of, well, big feet. Footprints said to come from Bigfoot exceed 24 inches long and eight inches wide. It is said by some to belong to a nearly extinct species of humans who survive in isolation. Some say this race is related to similar legends like the Yeti of Asia, the Almas of Siberia, or the Himalayas' Abominable Snowman.

Bigfoot's legend is shrouded in mystery, but unfortunately, mostly around the legitimacy of its existence. Since its popularization between the 60s and the 80s, countless amounts of evidence have been debunked or deduced as forged. “Bigfoot tracks” belong to bears, videos are staged and photos are altered. Lab results support this skepticism. In 2017, fur analysis of supposed “Yeti fur” showed that the hair samples belonged to bears in the region. A final example, a “Yeti tooth,” belonged to a dog.

Still, I would like to believe. I’ve heard first-hand eyewitness accounts of strange tall men spotted in the wilderness. These stories don’t come from liars either. Alas, the elusive Bigfoot has yet to be caught and is likely never to be.

So stay safe out there! Practice diligence when adventuring out into the woods, and be sure to pack enough food, supplies and a camera if you see Bigfoot!

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:thinking:

Trey Turner

Trey is an eighteen-year-old way over his oversized head. He is Cree from Eeyou Istchee in Northern Quebec. When he isn’t on Twitch or YouTube—he can be found in his bedroom, unconscious.

Twitter: @kr00si

Instagram: @krewsi

Etiological Myths and Conspiracy Theories

For years now, humans have been able to look to the internet to get the information they need. What about the years before the internet? Or worse, what about a time when we weren’t that big into science?

This is where etiological myths come to party. Early humans used etiological myths to explain phenomena that they couldn’t otherwise understand.

Science? Who’s that?

Think back to when you were a child: you put a tooth under your pillow, and in the morning, there would be money instead. You believed your parents that the switch had been made by a magical fairy because you didn’t have the background knowledge to suggest an alternate explanation.

When early humans accidently discovered the method of making alcohol, they immediately assumed that it was the work of the gods. They thought that a god had visited their jars of damp grain and fermented it. So when, in much a similar fashion, gross grain water was turned into grosser fermented liquid, early humans were keen to believe that it was a divine act, rather than non-existent science.

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Fun Explanations for Perfectly Normal Things

Drunkenness

Not only were pre-science humans amazed by the miracle transformation of a jar of disgusting wet barley into a bubbling mass of off-coloured liquid, but when they defied common sense and drank the putrid nonsense, they became drunk. Praise the gods’ eternal wisdom!

The Ancient Greeks believed that the god Dionysus visited them and made them drunk. Hausans believed that a spirit named Ba Maguje represented drunkenness and played a large part in that fuzzy feeling after too much fermented jar water.

Volcanoes

Is it a coincidence that volcano and Vulcan (the Roman god of blacksmithing) are basically the same word? It is not. The ancient Greek god Hephaestos was rejected from Mount Olympos because of his deformed leg. When Zeus threw him into the mortal world, Hephaestos landed next to a mountain. He took up residence within this mountain and even set up a forge. The heat and smoke that comes from metal-working escaped out the top of the mountain and thus volcanoes were born.

“What does this have to do with Vulcan?” you may ask. The Romans were generally too busy conquering things to invent their own mythology—they just stole stories from everyone else and changed the names a little. So, that delightful little story about Hephaestos became all about Vulcan.

The Klickitat people of modern-day Oregon have their own explanation for the existence of their local volcanoes. An old woman named Loowit once saved her tribe by giving them fire and was rewarded by Tahee Sahale (or Great Spirit) with the gift of youth and beauty. Well, the god overdid it and now two men from different tribes decided to go to war for her affection. They destroyed a sacred land bridge because they were throwing giant, hot boulders and had terrible aim. The gods got mad and turned the entire love triangle into volcanoes, whose eruptions were long seen as the lovers continuing to fight.

Illness

One of the most prolific topics for etiological myths is illness—mental and physical. For as long as humans have formed semi-logical thought, we have concocted mythological explanations for illnesses. We do this even in modern times, which I promise to explain in a minute.

In broad strokes, ancient people most often attributed illness to one angry god or another. The Bible is full of God sending plagues and making menstruation painful because of Eve’s original sin. Mental illnesses were often thought to be the work of some demon or spirit. Even if we consider post-science time periods, humans still attributed illness to “moral failings” or “going outside without a hat on”.

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In This Essay I Will…

Conspiracy theories are modern-day etiological myths. They are stories created to help humans understand something that confuses us or might be too complicated for most of us to grasp.

Whereas the ancient Greeks believed that it was angry gods that caused illness, some modern humans believe that vaccines cause autism. Science does not yet have an explanation for autism (not that we need one), so some humans have reverted to a pre-science style explanation and have created a new etiological myth.

Another similar (and more fun) idea that pre-science and post-science mythologies share, is the idea of a flat Earth. Many ancient cultures (Greeks, Norse, Germanic, and Mesopotamians, to name a few) believed that the Earth was flat, but the idea was debunked with empirical proof far earlier than most people think. People often have the idea of medieval scientists and their discovery of spheres. Theories on a spherical Earth have been documented as early as the 6th century BC. So, while the flat earth myth made the most sense to Ancient peoples in the beginning, they shifted from myth to science when they had the knowledge to do so.

These days, some people have seemingly decided to shift back. And, while etiological myths were accepted and common place in the past, we now look down on those who believe in them today. Perhaps because the ancient myths served as the best explanation available, while modern myths are generally some of the worst explanations people can come up with.

So, what have we learned today? That the gods make us drunk and volcanoes are just angry. And that conspiracy theories are etiological myths.

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Molly Desson

Molly Desson is a Professional Writing student at Algonquin College. When she’s not busy with coursework, she’s either talking to or about her dog. Some of her non-dog interests include the ancient world, crafts, and being outside.

The Gift of Sight

Picture This:

You and a group of friends are walking through the mall, or maybe at a convention. Your friend notices a kiosk that reads, Five Dollar Tarot Card Readings. Do you get excited? Do you even buy into all that hocus-pocus? Do you think that the woman behind the counter, draped in star-covered tulle and reeking of frankincense, can really see the future? Perhaps for many of us today, this is nothing more than a parlour trick — on the same level as watching horror movies to make ourselves scared or riding a rollercoaster to scream our heads off the whole time. But for ancient peoples, the gift of sight was all too real and often meant the difference between life and death.

The Pythia — Psychic or Psychotropic?

Apollo was the Greek god of music, light, medicine, and (of course) prophecy. He was said to possess many almost superhuman gifts. He could bring disease with anger but could also heal. He could control light and was a badass with a bow and arrow.

But one of Apollo’s more heroic achievements was his victory over the grotesque serpent Python when he was just an infant (he must have been wearing some heavy-duty diapers).

The place Apollo was said to have defeated Python became the city of Delphi. Being the god of prophecy, Apollo established the Oracle of Delphi, who would be able to share insights into the future to those who followed Apollo.

The chosen seers were named The Pythia in remembrance of the monster serpent Python. The oracles were asked to surrender all earthly pleasures and ties — including husbands, family, and children.

Their devotion was to lie with Apollo alone.

On the seventh day of each of the nine hottest days of the year, The Pythia would take questions from people all over Greece willing to make the journey to Delphi.

The oracles would fast, bathe in sacred springs, and drink holy water to prepare. When the time came, The Pythia would sit atop a tripod chair. Here, hovering atop a crack in the floor, she would inhale the natural gases from below (I bet she looked pretty cool).

The oracle would slip into a trance-like state, accessing the other world and pulling divine answers from the gods (high as a kite and ready to give profound wisdom rivalling Cheech and Chong).

After crossing the Halys, Croesus will destroy a great empire.

- Pythia, 560 BCE.

King Croesus had sought the advice before charging into battle against the Persians. The oracle was spot on, but the king’s arrogance blinded him.

It was not his enemy’s great empire that fell that day — it was his own.

The Severance of Sight and Sanctity

Somewhere along the way, Catholicism, along with other religions, brought the guillotine blade down between them and the occult. The ability to see into the future was no longer a gift but rather dark forces at play.

For this reason, it is worth mentioning Michel de Nostrdame, born in the south of France in 1503.

While not ancient mythology, it is interesting to compare the treatments of oracles like The Pythia and seers like Nostradamus.

Before writing his famous book of prophecies (Les Prophéties, 1555), Nostradamus, like Apollo himself, was a healer.

During his time, the Bubonic plague was in full disturbing force. Unlike common treatments of the time, Nostradamus had a high success rate in treating patients.

His treatments relied on good hygiene (a scarcity at the time) and pills of rosehip — high in vitamin C. He had been dismissed from a university for his affiliation to astrology and for his work as an apothecary. Despite this, Nostradamus travelled around Italy and France, helping those riddled with the plague.

After losing his wife and children to the plague and being charged with heresy in 1538 (apparently for cracking a joke about some hoity-toity statue), he avoided France and went on a journey of self-discovery — somewhere along the way, Nostradamus found the gift of sight.

After returning to France, remarrying, and giving up the medicinal practice (a shame really, cause the man had some sense!) Nostradamus began writing his famous predictions. But not before disguising them from religious persecution through four-line quatrains.

Eventually, he did maintain civility with the church, but many believed he was a fraud or a messenger of the devil.

Either way, this famous French seer had some rather spooky predictions which, are still analyzed today.

Apres les livres bruslez les asiniers, (After the books shall be burnt, the asses,)

Constraints seront changer habits divers; (Shall be compelled several times to change their clothes,)

Les Saturnins bruslez par les musniers, (The Saturnins shall be burnt by millers,)

Hors la plus part qui ne sera musniers. (Except the greater part, that shall not be discovered.)

- Les Prophéties, Century VI, Quatrain 17.

In this prophecy, the Saturnins represent educated people while millers are uneducated. This quatrain, arguably, predicts (rather accurately!) the heinous book burning that took place at the hands of the Nazis in World War II. The millers were the Nazis, who, viewing most texts as against their ideology, publicly burned them.

However, perhaps the last line is of some hope. Many people went out of their way to hide books and protect them for the future — risking their lives in the process.

So, the next time you’re walking along and see a booth advertising tarot readings, or a neon sign in a window flashing PSYCHIC, have a Raven Baxter moment of your own and ponder the question:

Do we really want to know the future?

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Tori Edwards

Tori is a professional writing student from Newfoundland, Canada. When not writing or drawing you might find her listening to rock and roll or summoning the stray cats from the neighborhood like a witch.

KIZ KULESI

Kız Kulesi is one of Istanbul and Turkey's most iconic pieces of architecture, known as Maiden's Tower, Tower of Leandros, or Bosphorus Tower. The Tower is on a small natural islet in the Bosphorus, which creates a beautiful sight and an exciting story.

What is the history of Kız Kulesi?

Let's have a look at the history of this fantastic place before telling the story. During the 5th century, the first Tower here was designed by an Athenian commander to monitor ships passing through the Bosphorus and collect their taxes. When the Ottomans took over, it began to be used as a lighthouse. 

View of Maiden's Tower from Salacak, Üsküdar

Leander’s Tower

The Tower has several myths and legends related to it. The two most famous stories are about love. 

According to the first myth, the Leander's Tower legend tells of two star-crossed lovers, a priestess of Aphrodite called Hero, and a young man named Leander. They fell in love. Every night, Leander would swim from the mainland to the island to see Hero. Hero would light a fire at the Tower's top to help him arrive at the island safely. 

Despite the strong wind, one stormy night, Leander decided to swim again. The waves he saw crashing on the beach could end their love. It was a crazy decision, but there was no other choice, so he swam. The wind blew out Hero's light. Leander was stranded in the middle of the sea. 

A lover’s hopeful trip turns into a terrifying test of survival. After a while, Leander became completely lost. High waves raised and dropped his body, sending Leander crashing through the water. 

"Leander, Leander!" Hero yelled and cried into the dark night. "If you are not coming to get me, I am coming!" said Hero. "I am coming!" Leander shouted back. Shortly after that, sounds died, and Leander drowned. The wind continued to rage, driving Leander farther out to sea. After hours, when Leander's body reached the Tower, Hero decided she couldn't live without him and took her own life to be with Leander.

The Maiden’s Tower

Another myth speaks of a Byzantine princess, who an oracle prophesized would be bitten by a snake and die before turning 18. The Emperor (her doting father), frightened, sent her to the Tower to shield her until she turned 18. Her father visited her to celebrate this birthday, bringing a basket of fruit. But, unknown to him, a serpent lay hidden inside and bit her, causing the tragic prophecy to come true.

Credit: Getty Images

The tower became something of a star internationally, with many film and television roles in the last years. Kız Kulesi was most famously starred in the 1999 Bond film, ‘The World is Not Enough.’

How can I go to the island?

You can take a boat from either Kabataş or Salacak (on the road between Uskudar and Harem). It takes 10 minutes from Kabataş and less than a minute from Üsküdar. Make sure to check the time schedule of the boat service in advance. 

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Serif Aydin

Serif Aydin is a student at Algonquin College. He is an editor-in-chief of a Turkish literary magazine and an activist.

twitter: @serifcanada

Instagram: @serifcanada

The Cat Who Bites the Strongest

strip of green jungle vegetation

Can you guess which feline has the strongest bite of all? Is it the lion or the cheetah in Africa? The tiger or lynx in Asia? Or Mr. Fluffs purring on your lap as you read this? They’re all beautiful in their own right. But none of the above big (or small) cats have the bite strength of the powerful jaguar—the cat king of the Americas.

The word “jaguar” comes from the Paraguayan Guaraní language and means “he who kills with one blow”.

Many cultures throughout the continent have worshipped the jaguar in different iterations. Most prominently, the jaguar was an important mythological figure in Aztec, Inca and Maya mythology.

Today we’ll explore the jaguar’s role in Mesoamerican mythology.

source: pexels/pixabay

close up of a jaguar’s head in the middle of the jungle

But what is Mesoamerica?

Let’s get this question out of the way first. Mesoamerica refers to the part of the American Continent that stretches from central Mexico to roughly Costa Rica.

This area saw a great flourishing of culture and organized civilization between the 1500s BCE and the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores in the 1500s CE. That’s 3,000 years!

Forget Werewolves. Think Were-Jaguars!

One of the earliest representations of the jaguar in Mesoamerica came from the Olmecs (Mexico, 1200-400 BCE), who portrayed the were-jaguar in statues and figurines as a half-man, half-jaguar entity. Archeologists call this the were-jaguar.

The archaeological evidence found so far doesn’t show the jaguar exclusively as an animal. Instead, Olmec art shows human figures with certain feline characteristics or vice versa. The jaguar remains an enigmatic figure in Olmec mythology because there is no clear answer as to its nature or meaning for these early Mesoamericans.

Later Maya and Aztec accounts talk about the power to become half-jaguar and half-human. Both cultures believed that anyone able to accomplish this could act on their most hidden desires. In other words, they could rid themselves of all cultural restrictions and inhibitions and be free to roam the world.

Credit: j’enrike marrokín/unsplash

stepped pyramid temple of the great jaguar in tikal, guatemala, surrounded by an archeological area

The B’alam

In Maya mythology, the jaguar ruled over the underworld (Xibalbá) and represented the night sun and darkness. Because of this, there are many temples dedicated to the jaguar throughout southern Mexico and Central America. Two notable examples are the Temple of the Great Jaguar in Tikal, Guatemala and the Temple of the Jaguar in Chichén Itzá, Mexico.

High-ranking Maya priests who embodied the jaguar were the only ones allowed to officiate at the most important ceremonies. If these priests or shamans sighted a black jaguar, it was an omen for disaster and catastrophe.

Beyond that, Maya kings often added the word “B’alam” (jaguar in the Mayan language) to their regal name.

The bravest and fiercest Maya soldiers belonged to the order of jaguar warriors. Think of them as the SEALs of Ancient Mesoamerica.

Wearing a jaguar pelt, whether spotted or black, was a symbol of prestige and power reserved only for priests, warriors and kings.

source: wikimedia commons, codex magliabechiano

drawing of an aztec jaguar warrior wearing a jaguar attire and feathers

Tezcatlipoca

Centuries after the Maya, the Aztecs venerated a god called Tezcatlipoca. As one of the main Aztec deities, Tezcatlipoca was the god of the Great Bear constellation (Ursa Major) and the night sky. This god’s animal disguise was the jaguar, whose spotted skin resembled the starry sky at night.

Tezcatlipoca was also a creator god who ruled over the Ocelotl Tonatiuh (Jaguar Sun), which was the first of the four worlds that were created and destroyed before the current universe.  

Like the Maya, the Aztecs also had an elite order of warriors who wore jaguar pelts as their fighting attire. These fearsome warriors had to capture four enemies from battles before they could become a member of the order.

As opposed to the Maya, however, the Aztecs didn’t entirely see the jaguar as a protector or symbol of the elite. Instead, they believed that Tezcatlipoca was the protector of slaves and those who suffered ill-treatment. He rewarded the virtuous with riches and fame while sending sickness or poverty to wrongdoers.

King of the (American) Jungle

credit: ramon vloon/unsplash

jaguar lying on top of a rock in the middle of the jungle

Many jaguar myths and gods extend far beyond Mesoamerica, from cultures ranging from the southern United States all the way to Argentina.

For the American peoples who came before us, the jaguar symbolized the most desirable traits of bravery, righteousness and protection. Sadly, its habitat is quickly diminishing each year—there are only an estimated 15,000 jaguars left in the wild.

With its robust yet agile body, superb tree-climbing abilities and magnificent spotted golden fur pattern, it’s no wonder that this big cat was a central icon in Indigenous American mythology for millennia.

Today, just as back then, the great jaguar remains the true king of the American jungles.

Let’s keep it that way!

Read more:

Jaguars in Mesoamerican Cultures

Aztec Warriors: Rank and Warrior Societies

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Raf N.

After finishing a Bachelor of Business Administration and a Graduate Diploma in Digital Marketing, Raf ventured into the exciting world of professional writing. Some of Raf’s interest include travel, photography, history, languages, and dogs.

A Storm By Any Other Name

Photo By Max LaRochelle on Unsplash

When the skies turn grey and the clouds roll over the horizon, bringing with them a low rumble and the occasional flash of lightning, what comes to mind? Do you envision the inevitable downpour of rain washing over the earth? Or do you envision a great deity with a lightning bolt in his hand? 

I can tell you honestly that I often imagine the latter. There is something about the chaotic energy of a storm that I have always been fascinated by. Is it any wonder that I have chosen to share the stories of two of the most well-known storm deities, Zeus and Thor? 

I’ll let you in on a secret: there’s more to them than meets the eye. Beyond the lightning, beyond the thunder, there is justice, protection, and strength. 

Let’s dive in, shall we?

Zeus: Dispenser of Justice

“Zeus with Hera expelling Hephaestus” by Gaetana Gandolfi

First and foremost, we have Zeus. He is the king and patriarch of the gods. He was positioned at the head of the Greek pantheon and was a weather deity, which included being a god of thunder, lightning, wind and rain. Through his control of the weather, he would provide signs and omens to both the other deities and the mortals who lived on the earth below.

Let us consider Zeus in his role as a punisher. Did you know that, according to some myths, Zeus had the Titans — children of heaven (Uranus) and earth (Gaea) — imprisoned because they disrespected him? That is not somebody I want to mess with.

In the world of mortals, he is seen as a god who dispenses justice. It is said that at his feet, there are two jars; these are the Jars of Fate. One is meant for good and the other evil and he would dispense both with careful thought. 

I think that this makes him a protector as well. To some, he is a protector of cities, homes, and strangers. From my understanding, he is an all-seeing god who sits on the summit of Olympus and observes the human world. From his place atop the mountain (a logical place for a weather god), he is can dispense justice as he sees fit. 

So, despite his association as a weather god, it turns out that he’s responsible for a lot more than the conjuration of storms.

Thor: Defender of Asgard and Slayer of Giants

Tor's Fight with the Giants by Marten Eskil Winge

As for Thor, his story is a little different. We all know him from Marvel’s Thor, played by Chris Hemsworth, but he is more than a handsome face who wields a magical hammer.

Thor, as you may already know, is the Norse god of thunder. He is also thought of as the god of the sky and agriculture. His father is Odin, the all-father, and his mother is Jord. Jord is the embodiment of the earth and one of Odin’s consorts. Part of Thor’s responsibilities includes defending Asgard (the realm of the Aesir) and Midgard (the realm of humans). 

He has three items that aid him in his protection of these realms: Mjolnir (his magic hammer), Megingjord (his belt of strength), and a pair of iron gloves that help him wield Mjolnir. 

You may have picked up on the ways in which Thor is a protector god, like Zeus. His protection often comes in the form of slaying giants, which is no small feat. He is also sometimes linked with natural phenomena such as thunder. When thunder rolls across the skies, it is said to be the rumbling sound of Thor’s chariot wheels as he rides across the heavens. 

However, like most of the Norse deities, Thor is destined to die at Ragnarok. If you don’t know, Ragnarok is the so-called end of the world. During this battle, Thor will fall after he kills Jormungand the Great Serpent using Mjolnir.

Even though his destiny is interwoven with the end of the world, I think that his story is still fascinating.

Rumbling Thunder

What I love the most about both deities, is that they are made out to be more than simply storm gods. Both are protectors, warriors. 

Maybe the next time you hear thunder rumbling in the distance, you will think of Thor in his great chariot. Or if you see lightning flash across the skies, you will think of Zeus atop his mountain, overlooking our mortal world. 

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Sarah Clarke

Sarah is a 20-something aspiring author who has a passion for writing. She is also an avid fan of movies, TV shows, video games, and of course, books. Her favourite genres include fantasy, sci-fi, historical fiction, and various others. Why have one favourite when you can have many?

How to Survive the Apocalypse, According to the Mayans

Photo by Max Letek on Unsplash

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Every generation lives through an apocalypse or two.

Be it Y2K, the yearly Rapture claims or COVID-19, everyone likes to theorize about the end of days. However, this is no new phenomenon; we’ve had the nutjob on the street warning us for centuries. Records from ancient civilizations speak of prophesized world-ending events, ranging from angry gods to… well, other angry gods.

We’ll be looking at the ancient Aztec peoples’ myths for their tips and tricks on coping with impending, unstoppable, cataclysmic destruction.

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In the Beginning…

According to the Aztecs, the universe was void until the first god created themself. Their name was Ometeotl. They were two beings, male and female, and symbolized duality. Ometeotl gave birth to four male gods (also known as Tezcatlipocas). Ometeotl is described as metaphysical, so they don’t participate in Earthly matters. This list states each son:

·       Quetzalcoatl, the god of light, mercy and wind.

·       Huitzilopochtli, the god of war.

·       Xipe Totec, the god of gold, farming, and Springtime.

·       Tezcatlipoca (Mayan for god. Yes, his name is just “God”): the god of judgment, night, deceit, sorcery, and the Earth.

The Mayans believed that there were four “Suns” (worlds) before ours, and we currently reside in the fifth and final one. Let’s look at the worlds that came before ours and try to learn from the gods’ (or our own) mistakes. Each Sun’s tale is labelled below, along with their cause of destruction.

First Sun: Humble Beginnings

The Four Sons created other gods and the first humans, who were giants. To create light, the four needed someone to become the sun. They decided on Tezcatlipoca, which was a terrible decision because Tezcatlipoca is the god of night—the exact opposite of the sun. He’s also missing a leg from an encounter with a primordial sea monster, Cipactli. Regardless, Tezcatlipoca became the Earth’s sun but was understandably only able to become half of a sun.

The world was okay for a while with a half-sun, until a sibling rivalry arose between Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca. The feud climaxed with Quetzalcoatl literally smacking the sun (his brother) out of the sky. The world became dark and, overcome with anger, Tezcatlipoca commanded his jaguars to eat all of humanity and thus ended the world.

Cause of destruction: Sibling rivalry



Second Sun: Electric Boogaloo

The Four Sons created some new humans, though they were now normal-sized. Quetzalcoatl, fresh from his victory, became the new sun. As time passed, the humans became less civilized and stopped respecting the gods. Tezcatlipoca retaliated, turning all humans into monkeys. Quetzalcoatl, who loved the humans, became upset and killed all the monkeys with a hurricane, thus ending the world.

Cause of destruction: Lack of divine respect

Third Sun: Raining Fire

The Four Sons repopulated Earth, and the god of rain and fertility, Tlaloc, became the new sun. However, Tezcatlipoca stole Tlaloc’s wife Xochiquetzal—the goddess of sex, flowers and corn—probably by flaunting the sick scar where his leg used to be. Tlaloc became depressed, causing a great drought on Earth. Humanity’s prayers for rain annoyed Tlaloc, eventually triggering his anger. Tlaloc answered their prayers with rains of fire, thus ending the world.

Cause of destruction: Infidelity

Fourth Sun: Blood Flood

The Four Sons created new humans yet again. This sun was Tlaloc’s new wife, Chalchiuhtlicue—the goddess of lakes, rivers, oceans, and beauty (nice catch, Tlaloc!). Chalchiuhtlicue was very loving of the humans, but Tezcatlipoca was a skeptic. Tezcatlipoca told Chalchiuhtlicue that she was merely faking her loving image to obtain the humans’ love. Chalchiuhtlicue was extremely upset by these statements. She then proceeded to cry blood for fifty-two years (!!!), causing a horrifying flood, thus ending the world.

Cause of destruction: Bullying

Current Sun: Cosmic War  

Tired of his creation dying over and over again, Quetzalcoatl took it upon himself to resurrect all of humanity. He stole human bones from the underworld and used them to bring humans back to life on Earth. The fifth sun was Huitzilopochtli, who, according to Tzitzimimeh (demonic deities of the stars), was shining too brightly. Tzitzimimeh, with aid from Coyolxauhqui (goddess of the moon), leads an assault on Huitzilopochtli. Every night, the two battle, with Huitzilopochtli winning each morning.

To aid the sun in its fight against the night, the Aztecs sometimes gave human sacrifices to strengthen Huitzilopochtli. These sacrifices were performed only as a precaution and were not enjoyed, as opposed to popular belief. Some sacrifices were offered to Tezcatlipoca as well in fear of his judgment. If these sacrifices stopped or humanity were to anger the gods again, the fifth and final sun would turn black. The world shall be struck with a catastrophic earthquake, and Tzitzimimeh will kill Huitzilopochtli and all of humanity.

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What can we do?

For starters, we should always be on our best behaviours for our divine watchers! Show respect and love for those who created us, be it family or deity. Be kind, trusting and faithful to one another.

If we cannot meet those requirements, we may need to create an ark and sail to Africa, 2012-style!

To view a comprehensive description of the Mayan apocalypse, click here!

To learn more about human sacrifice (you sicko), look at our blog post, On Human Sacrifice by Molly Desson!

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:thinking:

Trey Turner

Trey is an eighteen-year-old way over his oversized head. He is Cree from Eeyou Istchee in Northern Quebec. When he isn’t on Twitch or YouTube—he can be found in his bedroom, unconscious.

Twitter: @kr00si

Instagram: @krewsi

Till Death Do Us Part

O, if I say you look upon this verse,

When I perhaps compounded am with clay,

Do not so much as my poor name rehearse,

But let your love even with my life decay.

- Shakespeare, Sonnet 71

Love and death — it may be slightly morbid, but they are two sides of the same coin. On one side, a young married couple, and on the other side, the same couple sits — old and wise — holding hands, ready for death’s embrace together.

It’s no wonder that both bookends are celebrated intricately and lovingly around the world.

Here are a few traditions with links to ancient cultures!

Mexico

A 3,000-Year-Old Tradition:

Not to be confused with Halloween, Dia De Los Muertos (or Day of the Dead) is a 3,000-year-old Mexican tradition meant to celebrate the lives of loved ones passed.

The celebration incorporates bright clothes, intricate makeup, and offerings of the deceased’s favourite foods.

The idea of viewing death as a journey can be traced back in this region to the Aztecs that felt how a person died determined where in the afterlife they ended up.

The ancient Aztecs believed there were a total of 13 heavens - or paradises - and one underworld. The Aztecs believed that people who died heroically or tragically went to paradise. On the other hand, people who died in a boring way — like old age — had a one-way ticket to the underworld (Better get started on that bucket list!).

Perhaps it was customs like burying the dead beneath the home that began such traditions as Dia De Los Muertos. The yearning for your loved one to always be close by no matter what. I suppose they hoped that if the afterlife is a path that can be traveled that maybe their loved ones could journey back - at least for a day or two.

Dia De Los Muertos gets celebrated between October 31st and November 2nd. The celebration beautifully coincides with the migration of the monarch butterflies — as if the souls ride those delicate paper wings to visit their loved ones.

El Lazo:

The symbol of placing a long cord or rosary around the bride and groom in a figure-eight is an old Catholic wedding tradition.

After the couple recites their vows, the priest (or another dignitary) places the rosary first around the groom’s shoulders, then the bride’s. Adopted by Mexico as well as many other Spanish countries, El Lazo has become a sweet way to join a couple.

El Lazo (or the lasso) symbolizes the unity of the couple while the figure-eight blesses the couple infinitely.

Hawaii

Amama Ua Noa:

The celebration of life was honoured in ancient Hawaiian culture (and still today) through humorous stories told at funerals.

Laughing and smiling, wearing bright colours, and telling stories of the deceased were all welcome.

Leis (flower chains typically placed around the neck) adorned the funeral area. They lay across the casket and the guestbook. The Leis give respect to the dead and honour their place in life.

Funeral chants, known as Mele Kanikau, were sung to the dead to send them on their way through the afterlife.

E Puhi, e hoÿi mai! (Puhi, come back!)

Eia kou ÿai, eia kou iÿa, (Here is your food, here is your fish,)

Eia kou kapa, eia kou malo (Here is your clothing, here is your loincloth)

E hoÿi mai a ÿai a mäÿona! (Return and eat until satisfied!)

E hele, a päÿani, a lelele! (Come and play and jump around!)

ÿÄmama, ua noa. (It is done, it is freed.)

The Exchanging of Leis:

We all recognize this floral symbol of Hawaii — images of tourists stepping off the plane and being adorned with these chains of flowers to welcome them.

But the Lei is a much older tradition than many of us know. Traditionally, the Lei was a symbol of rank. The type of flower worn determined status.

Because of this, the exchanging of Leis was emblematic of respect, welcoming, and love.

Like El Lazo, the exchanging of Leis was symbolic of infinite love and unity.

There we have it!

That’s two ancient cultures that viewed the unity of love and the departure of the dead as beautiful, colourful events to be celebrated.

And how fitting — flowers, butterflies, food, and chants — all things with short yet impactful lives.

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Tori Edwards

Tori is a professional writing student from Newfoundland, Canada. When not writing or drawing you might find her listening to rock and roll or summoning the stray cats from the neighborhood like a witch.

All the Cool Kids Are Doing It: Serpents in Mythology

credit: pixabay

Some are beautiful. Some are scary. Best of all, you can’t escape them because they live everywhere except for the Poles!

Perhaps this is why snakes are one of the oldest and most widely depicted animals in world mythology. For some cultures, snakes represent evil, deceit and temptation. For others, they stand for fertility, rebirth and immortality.

Join me as we tour the world in serpentine fashion!

The Mediterranean and Middle East

You may remember Perseus and Medusa from my previous post. We’ll start with them this time.

The Ancient Greeks believed the gods punished three beautiful women by turning them into monsters with snakes for hair. They called them the Gorgons.

Medusa was the only mortal Gorgon, but both she and her sisters (Stheno and Euryale) could turn unsuspecting victims into stone. Perseus mounted Medusa’s severed head on his shield in order to petrify his enemies in battle. Quite smart if you ask me.

CREDIT: ROBERT THIEMANN/UNSPLASH

Next, we move down the Mediterranean into the Nile, where the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs adorned their heads with golden cobras—symbols of royalty and protection.

However, the snake was a dual force when it came to gods. The cobra goddess Meretseger was the protector of the Valley of the Kings, while the giant serpent god of chaos Apep (or Apophis) tried to devour the world each evening.

Thankfully for the Egyptians, the sun god Ra defeated Apep every night to secure the world’s rebirth at dawn.

A bit further east, the serpent Nachash plays a big role in the Book of Genesis. In the Garden of Eden, it convinced Eve to eat the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge. God had warned Adam and Eve not to eat the fruit. Of course, they didn’t listen...

Scholars believe that Nachash is a representation of desire, temptation or even Satan. For their transgression, God banished Adam and Eve from Eden.

So the Lord God said to the serpent, "Because you have done this, cursed are you above all livestock and all wild animals! You will crawl on your belly and you will eat dust all the days of your life.”

Genesis 3:14

CREDIT: PRISCILLA DU PREEZ/UNSPLASH

Up to the North!

According to Norse mythology, the enormous dragon serpent Jörmungandr lived in the ocean around Midgard (Earth). As it grew, its gigantic body encircled Midgard until it was able to put its own tail in its mouth.

During Ragnarok, or the final battle culminating in the destruction of the world, Jörmungandr rose from the sea and wreaked havoc in Midgard. The god Thor slew it with his hammer but later died himself, poisoned by the snake’s venom.

On the Other Side of the Atlantic

CREDIT: ARIAPSA MX/PIXABAY

Mexico and Central America were home to the Aztecs and the Mayas. The first Maya depictions of a serpent god appeared around 100 BCE in the form of snake heads carved on walls. The Maya called this god Kukulkan.

Nobody knows the exact nature of Kukulkan, but the Aztecs copied Maya mythology centuries later. Their feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl was the god of wind, rain, agriculture, learning and a key entity in the creation of the universe.

Further north, member of the Hopi tribe of Arizona have been performing a ritual called the Snake Dance for thousands of years. Just as the Maya and the Aztecs before them, the Hopi believe that snakes represent land fertility. Not much else of the ritual is known because it takes place in underground chambers—outsiders are not allowed to witness it. However, there are some exceptions.

Across the Pacific: To China, India and Beyond

CREDIT: SYED AHMAD/UNSPLASH

Ancient Chinese mythology speaks of an underwater snake demon who was able to transform into a human female called Bai Suzhen (Lady White Snake). The legend is said to resemble the yin and yang of Confucianism and Daoism. The white snake represents the yin, or feminine darkness. Her enemy, a Buddhist monk, is the yang, or masculine brightness.

In Buddhism, the Naga are half-human, half-cobra demigods who protect The Buddha.

Hinduism associates them with water, rivers and lakes. The god Brahma tasked them with biting only those who were truly evil or destined to die prematurely.

Our Tour Comes to an End

Sadly, we must conclude our express tour of the world, but many more mythological snakes exist. Maybe you know some examples yourself.

Regardless of how you feel about snakes, cultures across the world have feared and venerated them for millennia.

What do they mean to you?

Read more:

https://www.history.com/news/snake-symbol-history-mythology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snakes_in_mythology

http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/Sa-Sp/Serpents-and-Snakes.html

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Raf N.

After finishing a Bachelor of Business Administration and a Graduate Diploma in Digital Marketing, Raf ventured into the exciting world of professional writing. Some of Raf’s interest include travel, photography, history, languages, and dogs.

On Human Sacrifice

What Compelled People to Sacrifice Humans…

And why we never hear about it

Most people are familiar with the Aztecs and their supposed penchant for human sacrifice. But how many of us know the mythology behind this heinous practice?

Well, the Aztecs believed that their sun was the fifth and last in a line of suns. They believed that human sacrifice was necessary to keep the chaos of darkness at bay. Humans would be sacrificed, and their blood would be fed to the sun in order to keep it alive. The Aztecs sacrificed humans to save the world, which sounds like a worthy cause.

In Hawaiian mythology, a human sacrifice functioned as an apology to the gods after one of their divine laws had been broken. The victim in these cases was usually the sinner, so in reality it wasn’t too far off from the death penalty. These laws included things like cannibalism, incest and child murder.

Germanic tribes would sacrifice to their gods when they needed help through dire circumstances. They would turn to sacrifice whenever a tribe faced an agricultural disaster, or a war they knew would leave most of them dead.

Two things were true for all these instances of human sacrifice, it was only done when absolutely necessary and no one actually looked forward to it.

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The difference between murder and sacrifice

This is important to point out, because we also know of many instances in which people were killed by governmental institutions. Gladiatorial games in Rome saw captives of war sent to their deaths and Ancient Spartans murdered Helots (state-owned slaves) on a regular basis.

This isn’t sacrifice.

Sacrifice isn’t simply about killing people against their will. For a killing to be sacrificial, the gods need to be involved. Death needs to have a divine purpose. Murder is something that humans do to benefit humans. Sacrifice is something humans do to please the gods.

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The slanderous side of sacrifice

The Aztecs, Hawaiians, and Germanic tribes represent only a few of the accounts of societies that practiced human sacrifice, but what makes them special is that we actually have sources for their mythological compulsions. In other cases, such as with the Austronesian tribes, accounts of human sacrifice are shrouded in the fog of colonialism and biased history, with the true mythology hidden and distorted for political purposes.

While there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that human sacrifice was part of Austronesian mythologies, our minimal and incomplete accounts of the practice come from biased European “anthropologists”. They do not give accounts of what the mythology suggests as the reason for human sacrifice, simply that it happened and was bad. Europeans used human sacrifice to outline the Austronesians’ perceived barbarism and justify future colonialist efforts.

There are one or two unbiased sources that can be found with a great amount of effort. One Southeast Asian myth provides some context for the necessity of human sacrifice. In this tradition, there is a great flood that wipes out the majority of humanity. A brother and sister escape the flood and then replenish the Earth’s human population.

But incest is taboo and that causes an issue. To rectify this original sin, humans turned to sacrifice. Their blood is meant to help cleanse the living of the affront to the gods.

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Killing people is still bad…

This is where the distinction between sacrifice and murder and the cultural reasons behind sacrifice become so important. By the Austronesians’ own accounts, they performed sacrifice for much the same reason that Jesus sacrificed himself. This sacrifice had the intention of cleansing the human race of their sins in the eyes of their gods.

The depiction passed along by racist Europeans, on the other hand, is murder. Some accounts state that people were killed simply to use as rollers to get a boat into the water. While labelled as human sacrifice in most accounts, that’s murder, and it has a 99% chance of not being true.

The idea we have of cannibalistic heathens killing people left and right comes from Europeans and not the people themselves.

As we’ve seen throughout these examples, human sacrifice seems to have been used as the nuclear option. Aztecs aimed to avoid the apocalypse. Germanic tribes wanted to protect their people from famine. And the Austronesians attempted to atone for humanity’s sinful existence.

I’m not going to sit here and advocate for the normalization of human sacrifice, but I do think colonialist propaganda has tainted our perception of it. The people who practiced this ritual according to their sacred mythologies were not reveling in the act.

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Molly Desson

Molly Desson is a Professional Writing student at Algonquin College. When she’s not busy with coursework, she’s either talking to or about her dog. Some of her non-dog interests include the ancient world, crafts, and being outside.

Death, the Final Frontier...?

Death—we are obsessed with it. Some of us are worried about dying while others do not care at all. Whether consciously or not, I believe that we all fear death. 

Personally, I am interested in what ancient cultures thought of death and the afterlife and the deities associated with it.

The Morrigan (Celtic Goddess of War and Fate)

Photo by Kevin Mueller on Unsplash

The Celtic people believed in life after death. They buried food, weapons and other objects with their dead. I assume that was so that they are not left empty-handed in their next life. 

Now, the Irish believed that there was something called the Otherworld. This Otherworld had a few different names: The Delightful Plain, the Land of the Young, and the Land of the Living.

I would have assumed that the world we currently live in is the Land of the Living. However, given their beliefs about life after death, maybe all worlds can be considered the same. 

From my research, there is no deity associated with the Otherworld. However, there is a deity who is sometimes associated with death—the Morrigan.

The Morrigan is a goddess of war and fate. Her role involves presenting herself as a symbol of imminent death to those fighting in battle. She is also known for being able to foretell death during battle. She flies overhead as a crow and brings fear and courage to the warriors.

Even though she does not have a direct role with the Otherworld, she is still considered to be a goddess of death and destiny as well as war and fate. 

I think she is quite fascinating. 

Hel (Norse Goddess of the Underworld)

What about the Norse people?

They had a few different ideas about life after death, so let’s look at a few main concepts. 

The idea of “soul” to the Norse did not have the same meaning as it does to many of us today. “Soul” to the Norse had four different components. 

1. Hamr–this was a person’s physical appearance that could change shape and colour.

2. Hugr–this was one’s personality that remained with them after death.

3. Fylgja–this was one’s familiar spirit.

4. Hamingja–this was about someone’s quality of life formed or caused by their Hugr. 

Now, these parts of the soul had more than one possible place that they could end up. It is believed that there are five different realms in which a person could end up after death. 

“Hel” by Johannes Gehrts (1889)

1. Valhalla—the hall of heroes where those who died in battle go. 

2. Folkvangr—the Field of People ruled by Freya.

3. Hel—also called Niflheim ruled by the goddess Hel (we will come back to her later). This is where most souls end up.

4. The Realm of Ran—the Coral Caves of Ran ruled by the giantess Ran where those who died at sea end up.

5. The Burial Mound—this is where the soul of the dead could remain alongside their corpse. 

I want to focus on Hel because this realm is associated with a deity. Hel is a goddess of death who rules over the realm of Niflheim. This place, also called “The World of Darkness”, later came to be known as “Hel” because of the goddess who rules over it. 

Niflheim is where most people end up after they die. They continue to live as they did when they were alive. Personally, I think this sounds quite nice (as far as an afterlife goes).

Hel is the daughter of Loki, the trickster god. This makes her the sister to the wolf Fenrir and the World Serpent, Jormungandr. Her name means “hidden” which may be linked to her role as the goddess of death. As a goddess, she is indifferent towards the living and the dead but there is not a lot of representation in ancient text. 

However, unlike The Morrigan, she does seem to have more direct involvement with the dead as ruler of the Underworld. 

Maybe Death is Not So Bad

Photo by Leonardo Yip on Unsplash

Considering both views about death and the afterlife, what I find the most interesting is that there is a place for everyone. Neither of them has clear-cut ideas about “good vs. bad” when it comes to a person’s soul. There is simply a place. 

Looking at both the Celtic and Norse views of the afterlife, death feels less intimidating than I once thought. Don’t you think? 

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Read More:

About Celtic Beliefs

About the Morrigan

About Norse Beliefs

More About Norse Beliefs

About Hel

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Sarah Clarke

Sarah is a 20-something aspiring author who has a passion for writing. She is also an avid fan of movies, TV shows, video games, and of course, books. Her favourite genres include fantasy, sci-fi, historical fiction, and various others. Why have one favourite when you can have many?

THE BURNING MOUNTAIN – CHIMAERA

“…indeed burned with a flame that does not die by day or night. “

Pliny

FIRE, WATER AND MYTHOLOGY NEAR ANTALYA/TURKEY

The Chimaera is a bunch of small flames burning naturally on the rocky slopes of Mt Olympos, known as Yanartaş, or 'Burning Rock' in Turkish. Certainly, a flame that does not die by day or night is burned.

 What's the name?

chimera-bellerophon

Well, this depends on who you're wondering! The name comes from a village in Greece. Of course, being Greek, they used the Greek alphabet and pronounced it ελλμππις. Typically, English speakers spell it as Olympos, but the Turks spell it as Olimpos. As commonly seen in the English text, this is like the spelling discrepancy between Istanbul and İstanbul, as it's actually spelled. Or Cappadocia versus Kapadokya.

It's very easy to see why ancient people attributed these extraordinary flames to the breath of a beast that terrorized Lycia, part lion, part goat and part snake. 

By riding the winged horse Pegasus and pouring molten lead into the monster's mouth, the legendary hero Bellerophon allegedly destroyed the Chimaera.

Prometheus' Crime

According to Mark Cartwright, “Feeling sorry for man’s weak and naked state, Prometheus raided the workshop of Hephaistos and Athena on Mt. Olympus and stole fire, and by hiding it in a hollow fennel-stalk, he gave the valuable gift to man which would help him in life’s struggle. The Titan also taught man how to use their gift and so the skill of metalwork began; he also came to be associated with science and culture.

“PROMETHEUS RAIDED THE WORKSHOP OF HEPHAISTOS AND ATHENA ON MT. OLYMPUS AND STOLE FIRE; HE THEN GAVE THE VALUABLE GIFT TO MANKIND.”

In a slightly different version of the story, mankind already had a fire, and when Prometheus tried to trick Zeus into eating bones and fat instead of the best meat during a meal at Mt. Olympus, Zeus, in anger, took away fire so that man would have to eat his meat raw. Prometheus then stole the fire as in the alternative version. This also explained why, in animal sacrifices, the Greeks always dedicated the bones and fat to the gods and ate the meat themselves.” (Cartwright, 2013)

Today?

cirali-yanartas

Gas still seeps from the earth today and, upon contact with the air, explodes into flames. The exact composition of the gas is uncertain, but methane is assumed to contain it. Even by covering it, a flame may be extinguished; it will reignite into a new and different flame close by. The 20 or 30 flames in the main area are evident at sea at night.

Adventure?

If you like adventure tour, visit southeast of Turkey and visit Ancient Olympos and the Chimaera, especially after dinner is an amazing time to visit; follow the Chimaera signs for 3.5 km from Çıralı on the main road along the hillside before you enter a valley and walk up to a parking lot. It's a further 20- to 30-minute climb up a stepped path to the site from there; carry a torch (flashlight) or rent one From Olympos, most camps arrange transportation after dinner every night. (Cromwell, 2016)

At Cirali, marshmallows can be purchased and then roasted over the flames.

PRACTICAL INFORMATION

You will probably need some information to minimize the wasting time in order to enjoy your trip.

• Get to Antalya by bus.

• Ask for the minibus to the Antalya Otogar (Bus station), Olympos. 

• Every 30 to 60 minutes, they depart, and it takes about 90 minutes. Allow enough time before dark to reach Olympos. 

• The minibus will drop you off at a tea-house on the roadside. Well, a tea-tent actually. 

• Get some tea or something else to drink at the tea house and wait for a shuttle van from the valley if you arrive early enough. 

• If you arrive too late and the shuttle van is no longer running, then you can hire someone at the tea-house to drive you down to the valley when enough people gather. 

• Do not attempt to walk out of the tea-house! It's a couple of miles down a steep and winding path.

Source:

Cromwell-int, Turkey, 2016, retrieved from https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/turkey/olimpos/

Cartwright, Mark, Prometheus, 2013, retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/Prometheus/

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Serif Aydin

Serif Aydin is a student at Algonquin College. He is an editor-in-chief of a Turkish literary magazine and an activist.

twitter: @serifcanada

Instagram: @serifcanada

Animal Spirits: A Tail of Unity

Image by Valentin Antonucci on Pexels

Today our world feels closer than ever. Sure, maybe I’m being an optimist, but hear me out! Even during times of hardship, we seem to hold onto a sense of community. We post, share, like, and chat more than any other time.

The world was once a vastly different place, where technology didn’t connect people like it does now. People had to travel long distances to get anything done. Yet an interconnectedness between cultures existed - we are more alike than we know. How can so many similar stories follow cultures that probably didn’t know of each other’s existence?

Search your mind through your own culture and heritage (if you’re an atheist borrow a friend’s!). Conjure those images of serpents, ravens, and felines and begin to ask yourself who shares those stories?

Image by Janko Ferlic on Pexels

When we think of motifs in ancient mythologies our minds tend to stir up images of menacing beasts. Yet, one of the most notable perhaps is the humble cow. (Yes, yes, insert how hamburgers are your religion, too) but the unthreatening cow holds a rather honorary place in many religions.

In Norse mythology, Audumla (the mother cow) gave milk in rivers so that Ymir (the first being in existence) could have something good to drink. Because of this her nourishment is credited with sustaining initial life.

In Hinduism, Kamadhenu is considered the mother of all living things and the goddess of abundance. She was present during the creation of everything and her milk helped to sustain the gods. Eerily similar, right? Perhaps it’s not so unthinkable that both the Norse and the Hindu people chose a cow as a motherly figure. Cow’s milk remains a sustaining life force around the world. How now, brown cow?

Image by Louis Etienne Foy on Unsplash

Both the Japanese and the Celts believe foxes to be great shapeshifting tricksters. They reside in very different parts of the world, but both cultures find the fox spirit (or Kitsune in Japanese) to be cunning, clever, and seductive.

In Celtic mythology, these humorous spirits are synonymous with adaptability and tenacity. The Kitsune of Japan are linked to harvest and fertility - two concepts that require a lot of adaptability. One wrong move and your cabbage patch becomes a garbage patch!

Perhaps the most unsettling similarity is the whole shapeshifting idea. It makes sense to look at a sly old fox and come to the same conclusion of intelligence, trickiness, and even adaptability - but shapeshifting? Maybe it’s nothing, but maybe they saw some shit!

Image by 99-films on Unsplash

In Norse mythology, the wolf Fenrir, son of Loki, is raised by the gods from a puppy but he grows alarmingly fast. Long story short, he’s chained up and feels (understandably!) betrayed by the gods. As Ragnarök (end of the world) begins, Fenrir breaks free, opens his jaws wide and runs along the earth consuming everything in his path. His brother, the colossal serpent Jormungandr, is stirred up out of the ocean, and Naglfar (the ship made of human fingernails) sails to defeat the gods - Oddly specific right?

Dogs and wolves hold great significance in many religions. For example, Wepwawet is one of the Egyptian gods of death. He is a wolf god thought to guide the dead on their journey through the afterlife. He is also a being who helps lead armies into battle and is often depicted atop a boat, alongside a serpent - just like Fenrir. So, while we may differentiate them by their affiliation to good and evil, they still hold remarkably similar traits!

I think whether you wish to believe that all these stories are similar because there’s some truth to them, or because its a coincidence is completely valid either way. Personally, I’d like to think it’s a bit of both. It’s nice to believe that our way of thinking and the human struggle are collective; that there is a unity in storytelling that brings us together. After all, we are more alike than we are different.

But I think they were onto something with those shape shifting foxes.

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Tori Edwards

Tori is a professional writing student from Newfoundland, Canada. When not writing or drawing you might find her listening to rock and roll or summoning the stray cats from the neighborhood like a witch.